Geographical Extent and Cities:
The Harappan Civilization was spread over a vast geographical area, covering parts of present-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. It is believed to have had well-planned urban centers, with the two most prominent and well-excavated cities being Harappa in Pakistan and Mohenjo-Daro in present-day Sindh, Pakistan. These cities, with their advanced urban planning, sophisticated drainage systems, and large, well-structured houses, indicate a high level of organization and governance.
The Northern-most site of Indus
Cvilization is Ropar(Sutlej),
Punjab(Earlier); Manda(Chenab),
Jammu and Kashmir(Now).
The Southern-most site of Indus
Civilization-Bhagatrav(Kim),
Gujarat(Earlier); Daimabad(Pravara),
Maharashtra(Now).
The Eastern-most site of Indus
Civilization- Alamgirpur(Hindon),
Uttar Pradesh.
The Western-most site of Indus Civilization- Sutkagendor(Dask), Makram Coast(Pakistan-Iran Border).
Capital Cities-Harapa, Mohenjodaro
Port Cities- Lothal, Sutkagendor,
Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
Mohenjodaro the largest site of Indus Civilization,
Rakhigarh the largest Indian site of
Indus Civilization.
Some Important Sites of Harappan Civilization
1. Harappan (Punjab, Pakistan)
River: The Ravi
Excavator: Daya Ram Sahni (1921)
Archaeological Finds:
Virgin-Goddess, Lingam(male sex organ), Yoni(female sex organ), Painted pottery, clay figures of mother Goddess, Wheat and Barley in wooden mortar, Copper scale, Crucible for bronze, copper-made mirror, 6 Granaries in a row, working floors, women’s quarters, Vanity box, Dice.
2. Mohenjodaro(Naklistan) (Sindh, Pakistan)
River: Indus
Excavator: Rakhal Das Bennerji (1922)
Archaeological Finds:
Brick Kilns, 2 Mesopotamiam seals, 1398 seals, Dice, A fragment of woven cotton, Human skeltons huddled together, Painted seal,clay figures of Mother Goddedd, Bronze image of a nude women dancer, steatite image of bearded man, assembly hall, Shell strips, PashupatiMahadeva, Great Granary, Great Bath(the Largest building of civilization)
3. Chanhudaro (Sindh, Pakistan)
River: Indus
Excavator: Mackay(1925)
Archaeological Finds:
City without a citadel, Inkpot, Listick, Metal-workers’, shell-ornament makers’ and bead-makers’ shops, Imprint of dog’s paw on a brick, Terracotta model of a bullock cart, Bronze toy cart.
River: Bhogava
Excavator: S.R. Rao(1954)
Archaeological Finds:
Dockyard, Rice, Husk, Metal workers, shell-ornament makers’, and burial, Terracotta model of a ship, Dying vat, Persian/Iranian seal, Baharainean seal, Printed Jar.
5. Kalibanga aslo known as Bangles of Black Colour (Gujarat,India)
River: Ghaggar
Excavator: A.Ghosh(1951)
Archaeological Finds:
Ploughed field suface, 7 Fire altars, Decorated bricks, Wheels of a toy cart, Mesopotamiam cylindrical seal.
6. Banawali (Haryana,India)
River: Ghaggar
Excavator: R.S.Bist(1973)
Archaeological Finds:
Lack of chess-board or gridiron pattern town planning, Lack of systematic drainage system, Toy plough, Clay figures of Mother Goddess.
7. Dholavira (Gujarat,India)
River: Luni
Excavator: J.P.Joshi(1967)
Archaeological Finds:
A unique water harnessing system and its storm water drainage system, a large well and a bath(giant water reservoirs), Only site to be divided into 3 parts, Largest Harappan inscription used for civic purposes, A stadium.
Agriculture and Economy:
The Harappans were an agrarian society, heavily dependent on the fertile floodplains of the Indus River and its tributaries. They practiced advanced agricultural techniques, including the use of irrigation systems and ploughs, which contributed to surplus food production. The surplus likely supported specialized crafts and trade, as evidenced by the discovery of unique artifacts such as pottery, beads, seals, and metalwork. A very interesting feature of this Civilization was that Iron was not known to the people.
Main Crops: Wheat and Barely, Evidence of cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur(Gujarat) only, Dates, Mustard, Sesamum, Cotton, etcinfact in Indus people were the first to produce cotton in the world(It was called ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks).
Trade and Commerce:
The Harappan Civilization had a well-established trade network, with evidence of connections to Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Modern Iraq), Central Asia, and the Persian Gulf. Archaeological findings indicate that they engaged in long-distance trade, which facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural influences. The use of standardized weights and measures and the presence of seals suggest a well-organized trade system.
Language and Writing:
There is the evidence
of pictographic scripts, found mainly on seals. But despite numerous
archaeological discoveries, the Harappan script remains undeciphered, but
overlap of letters on some of the potherds from Kalibanga show that writing was
boustrophedon of from right to left and from left to right in alternate lines. The
absence of a deciphered script limits our understanding of their culture,
governance, and daily life. It is an area of ongoing research and one of the
most intriguing aspects of the Harappan Civilization.
The oldest script in Indian subcontinent is the Harappanscript, but the oldest deciphered script is Brahmi script known from about 5th century BC. Most later Indian script developed from Brahmi.
Social Organization:
The Harappan society appears to have been well-structured, with evidence of a hierarchical social order. The cities' well-planned layout and construction, along with the presence of large public buildings, suggest a centralized authority. The society seems to have been stratified, with some individuals likely holding positions of authority or specialization in various crafts.
Religion and Art:
The Harappans seem to have practiced a religion that involved the worship of various deities and animals. Many terracotta figurines and seals have been found depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms, suggesting a connection with their religious beliefs. The most commonly found figurine is that of Mother-Goddess(Matridevi or Shakti). There is evidence of prevalence of Yoni(female sex organ) worship. The chief male deity was the ‘PasupatiMahadeva’ i.e. the lord of Animals(Proto-Shiva) represented in seals as sitting in yogic posture; he is surrounded by four animals Elephant, Tiger, Rhino, and Buffalo and also two deer appear at his feet. There are prevalence of Phallic(Lingam) worship. Their art also includes intricate pottery, sculptures, and seals, revealing a flair for craftsmanship.
Decline and Disappearance:
The reasons for the decline of the Harappan Civilization remain speculative. Several theories, such as natural disasters, climate change, or the arrival of nomadic groups, have been proposed.E.g‘Indra’ is accused of causing the decline of Indus Civilization- M. Wheeler However, none of these theories provide a definitive explanation for its collapse. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Harappan Civilization continued to influence subsequent cultures in the Indian subcontinent.
The Harappan
Civilization stands as a testament to the ingenuity and sophistication of
ancient human societies. Despite the mysteries that surround it, the Harappans
left behind an impressive legacy of urban planning, advanced agriculture,
trade, and craftsmanship. Their achievements have not only enriched our
understanding of ancient civilizations but have also shaped the cultural
heritage of the Indian subcontinent. As ongoing archaeological research
continues to reveal new insights, the story of the Harappan Civilization will
undoubtedly continue to captivate and intrigue scholars and history enthusiasts
alike.
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