4. Religious Movement (600 BC - 400 BC)

During the period from 600 BC to 400 BC, a number of new religious movements emerged, such as Buddhism and Jainism. This era, often referred to as the Age of Buddha or the Period of Second Urbanization, witnessed significant changes in the religious landscape of ancient India.

There were several reasons behind the rise of these religious movements:

1. Decline of Vedic Philosophy: The teachings of the ancient Vedic texts had lost their original purity over time.

2. Complexity and Degeneration of Vedic Religion: The Vedic religion had become overly complicated, filled with superstitions, rigid dogmas, and excessive rituals.

3. Social Unrest due to Brahmanical Supremacy: The dominance of the Brahmin priestly class created discontent among other social groups, particularly the Kshatriyas, who reacted against Brahmanical authority.

4. Changes in Economic Practices: Eastern India saw the introduction of new agricultural techniques, leading to shifts in the economy. This change may have contributed to the emergence of new religious ideas.

5. Desire for Social Mobility: With the growth of trade and commerce, the Vaishya merchant class sought to improve their social status, driving them to explore alternative religious paths.

Buddhism:

Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC, according to widely accepted beliefs. He was born on the full moon day of the month of Vesakha, in Lumbini, which is now located in the foothills of Nepal. He was born into the Sakya Kshatriya clan to his father Suddhodhana, who was the king of Kapilvastu, and his mother Mahamaya, a princess of the Kosala dynasty.

After his mother's early passing, he was raised by his stepmother and aunt, Mahaprajapati Gautami. He was married at a young age to Yasodhara, a princess from the Koliya dynasty, and they had a son named Rahul.

When Gautama Buddha was 29 years old, he encountered four sights that changed his life: an old man, a sick person, a corpse, and an ascetic. These experiences prompted him to renounce his comfortable life and become a wandering ascetic.

His first teacher was Alara Kalama, a Sankhya philosopher, from whom he learned meditation techniques. He then studied under Udraka Ramaputra. At the age of 35, Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment, or Nirvana, under a Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, after 49 days of continuous meditation. He became known as the Buddha, or the Enlightened One.

Buddha's first sermon, known as the Dharmachakra Pravartana, was delivered at Sarnath to his five disciples. This event marked the beginning of his teaching career.

He passed away at the age of 80 in 483 BC in Kushinagar, which is now identified with the village of Kasia in the Siddharthanagar Janapada of the Deoria district in Uttar Pradesh. This event is known as the Mahaparinirvana, or the Final Passing Away.

 

Doctrine of Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are the core teachings of Buddhism. They reveal the nature of human existence and offer a path to liberation from suffering.

1. Life is Full of Suffering (Dukkha): This truth acknowledges that suffering is an inherent part of human life. It includes physical pain, mental anguish, and the dissatisfaction that arises from the impermanent nature of all things.

2. There are Causes of Suffering (Dukkha Samudaya): Suffering doesn't just happen randomly; it arises from specific causes. These causes are often rooted in desires, attachments, and ignorance. The Twelve Links of Dependent Origination illustrate how these causes give rise to suffering.

3. Suffering Can be Ended (Dukkha Nirodha): Despite the existence of suffering, there is a way to end it. This cessation of suffering is known as Nirvana. It is a state of liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

4. There is a Path to the Cessation of Suffering (Dukkha Nirodha Gamini Patipada): The Fourth Noble Truth outlines the Eightfold Path, which provides a systematic way to overcome suffering and attain Nirvana. This path consists of ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.

Great Events of Buddha's Life	Symbol
Janma (Birth)	Lotus and Bull
Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)	Horse
Nirvana/ Sambodhi (Enlightenment)	Bodhi tree
Dharmachakra pravartana (First Sermon)	Wheel
Mahaparinirvana (Death)	Stupa

Note:

1. Pratitya Samutpada is also known as the theory of cause and effect, or the theory of momentariness and impermanence. It explains how everything in the universe arises and ceases due to interconnected causes and conditions.

2. Desire is identified as the root cause of suffering in Buddhism. It's the attachment to things and the craving for pleasure that leads to dissatisfaction and sorrow.

3. The ultimate aim of life in Buddhism is to attain Nirvana, a state of eternal peace and bliss. It signifies liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.

4. The Eightfold Path consists of eight practices: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration. These guide individuals towards living a balanced and ethical life.

5. Madhyamika Pratipada, or the Middle Path, advises avoiding extremes in life. It suggests steering clear of both a life of excessive comfort and luxury, as well as a life of extreme asceticism. Instead, it encourages finding a balanced and moderate approach to living.

Triratna: Three Jewels of Buddhism

Buddhist Council	Year	Venue	Chairman	Patron	Result
Ist Buddhist Council	483 BC	Saptaparni Cave, Rajgriha	Mahakassapa	Ajatashatru, Harayanka Dynasty	Compilation of Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka by Ananda and Upali respectively
2nd Buddhist Council	383 BC	Vaishali	Sabbakami	Kalashoka, Shisunaga Dynasty	Monks of Vaishali wanted some changes in rites, leading to a schism into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas
3rd Buddhist Council	250 BC	Ashokarama Vihara, Patliputra	Mogaliputta Tissa	Ashoka Maurya Dynasty	Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka and decision to send missionaries to various parts of the world
4th Buddhist Council	98 AD	Kundala Vana, Kashmir	Chairman: Vasumitra; Vice Chairman: Ashvaghosa	Kanishka, Kushana Dynasty	Compilation of Mahavibhasha shastra and the division of Buddhists into Hinayanists and Mahayanists

Buddhist Literature

I. Pali Texts:

• Tripitaka: This collection, meaning "Three Baskets," includes Buddha's teachings (Sutta Pitaka), monastic rules (Vinaya Pitaka), and religious discourses (Abhidhamma Pitaka).
• Milindapanha: A dialogue between King Milinda (also known as Menander, an Indo-Greek ruler) and Buddhist sage Nagasena.
• Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha: These are important chronicles of Sri Lanka.

II. Sanskrit Texts:

• Works by Ashvaghosha: Includes "Buddha Charita," "Saundarananda," "Sutralankar," "Sariputra Prakaran," and "Vajra Suchi."
• Mahavibhasha Shastra: Written by Vasumitra.
• Works by Buddhaghosha: Includes "Visudhamagga," "Atthakathayen," and "Sumangalvasini."
• Works by Nagarjuna: Includes "Madhyamika Karika" and "Prajnaparimita Karika."

Sects of Buddhism:

Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle):

• Followers believe in the original teachings of Buddha.
• Seek individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
• Do not believe in idol worship.
• Predominant in South Asia, including Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand.

Mahayana (Greater Vehicle):

• Followers believe in the universality of Buddha's teachings.
• Seek salvation for all beings through the help of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
• Embrace idol worship.
• Predominant in East Asia, including China, Korea, and Japan.

Subsects:

• Madhyamika: Founded by Nagarjuna.
• Shunyavada: A philosophical school within Mahayana.

Vajrayana:

• Followers believe in attaining salvation through acquiring magical power (Vajra).
• Popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Bodhisattvas:

• Vajrapani: Associated with thunderbolt, symbolizing power over evil.
• Avlokitesvara (Padmapani): Known for compassion.
• Manjushri: Associated with wisdom.
• Maitreya: The future Buddha.
• Kshitigarbha: Guardian of purgatories.
• Amitabha/Amitayus: Associated with heavenly realms.

Sacred Shrines

1. Principal Sites:

   • Lumbini: Where Buddha was born.
   • Bodh Gaya: Where Buddha attained enlightenment.
   • Sarnath: Where Buddha delivered his first sermon.
   • Kusinagar: Where Buddha passed away.

2. Eight Holy Places (Ashtasthanas):

   • In addition to the four principal sites, four more places are considered sacred:
     • Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali, and Sankasya.

3. Other Important Centers of Buddhism in Ancient India:

   • Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda: In Andhra Pradesh.
   • Nalanda: In Bihar.
   • Junagadh and Vallabhi: In Gujarat.
   • Sanchi and Bharhut: In Madhya Pradesh.
   • Ajanta-Ellora: In Maharashtra.
   • Dhaulagiri: In Odisha.
   • Kannauj, Kaushambi, and Mathura: In Uttar Pradesh.
   • Jagadala and Somapuri: In West Bengal.

Buddhist Architecture:

1. Stupa:
   • These are structures that house relics of Buddha or important Buddhist monks.
2. Chaitya:
   • These are prayer halls where Buddhists gather for worship.
3. Vihara:
   • These are residences for monks, providing a place for meditation and study.

Buddhist Universities

University	Place	Founder
Nalanda	Badagaon, Bihar	Kumargupta I (Gupta ruler)
Odantpuri	Biharsharif, Bihar	Gopala (Pala ruler)
Vikramshila	Bhagalpur, Bihar	Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Somapuri	North Bengal	Dharmapala (Pala ruler)
Jagadal	Bengal	Ramapala (Pala ruler)
Vallabhi	Gujarat	Bhattarka (Maitrak ruler)

Royal Patrons of Buddhism:

• Magadhan Rulers: Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
• Kosala Ruler: Prasenjit.
• Vatsa Ruler: Udayan.
• Avanti Ruler: Pradyota.
• Mauryan Ruler: Ashoka and Dasharatha.
• Indo-Greek Ruler: Milinda (also known as Menander).
• Kushana Ruler: Kanishka.
• Vardhana Ruler: Harshavardhana.
• Pala Rulers: Gopala, Dharmapala, and Rampala.

Notable Actions by Royal Patrons:

• Ashoka: Called the 3rd Buddhist council and sent missions to Sri Lanka, led by his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra.
• Kanishka: Called the 4th Buddhist council and sent missions to China, Korea, and Japan.
• Patas of Bengal and Bihar: Were the last great patrons of Buddhism in the region.

Jainism

In Jain tradition, it's believed that there were 24 spiritual leaders called Tirthankaras, who showed the path to spiritual enlightenment. The first Tirthankara was Rishabhadeva, also known as Adinatha, and the last was Mahavira.

According to texts like the Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana, Rishabha is considered an incarnation of Narayana, a form of the god Vishnu.

Interestingly, the names of two Jain Tirthankaras, Rishabha and Arishtanemi, are mentioned in the ancient Rig Veda.

While historical evidence is scarce for the earlier Tirthankaras, we have more concrete records for the last two, Parshwanath (the 23rd) and Mahavira (the 24th).

Parshwanath was a prince from Benaras who renounced his royal status and lived as a hermit. He passed away on Parasanath Hill in Giridih, Jharkhand. His teachings revolved around four principles: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, embraced these four teachings and added one more: Brahmacharya, which emphasizes chastity.

These teachings form the foundation of Jain philosophy, guiding followers on the path of moral and spiritual development.

24 Tirthankaras

Name	Symbol
Rishabha	Bull
Ajitnath	Elephant
Sambharnath	Horse
Abhiaandam	Monkey
Sumatinath	Curlew
Padmaprabhu	Red Lotus
Suparswanath	Swastik
Chandraji Prabhu	Moon
Suvidhinath	Crocodile
Shitainath	Srivatsa
Shreganath	Rhinoceros
Vasupujya	Buffalo
Vimatnath	Boar
Anantnath	Faloon
Dharmanath	Vajra
Shantinath	Deer
Kuntunath	He-Goat
Amath	Fish
Mallinath	Waterpot
Muniswasth	Tortoise
Neminath	Blue Lotus
Arishtanemi	Conch Shell
Parshwanath	Serpent

Mahavira’s Life

Mahavira was born around 540 BC in Kundagrama, a village near Vaishali in Bihar.

His father, Siddhartha, was a leader of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan under the Vajji confederation in Vaishali. Mahavira's mother, Trishala, was the sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara, the ruler of Magadha, through his aunt's marriage.

Mahavira was married to Yashoda, the daughter of King Samaravira. They had a daughter named Anonja Priyadarshini, whose husband, Jamali, became Mahavira's first disciple.

At the age of 30, after his father's death, Mahavira renounced his family and worldly possessions to become an ascetic. He sought the truth and was initially accompanied by Makkhali Gosala, but they later parted ways, with Gosala founding the Ajivika sect.

When Mahavira was 42 years old, he attained Kevala Jnana, or supreme knowledge, under a sal tree at Jambhikagrama, on the banks of the river Rijupalika.

After this enlightenment, Mahavira was called by various names such as Kevalin (perfectly enlightened), Jina (victor), Jitendriya (conqueror of senses), Nirgrantha (free from all bonds), Arhat (blessed one), and Mahavira (the great hero). His followers came to be known as Jains.

Mahavira delivered his first sermon in Pava to his 11 disciples, known as Gandharas or Gandharvas. Later, he established a Jain community (Jain Sangha) in Pava.

At the age of 72, in 468 BC, Mahavira passed away in Pavapuri near Biharsharif in Bihar. Only one of his 11 disciples, Sudharma, survived him.

Doctrines of Jainism

Triratna: The Three Gems of Jainism

Jainism teaches that life's purpose is to achieve spiritual liberation through the Triratna, which consists of three essential principles:

1. Samyak Shradha or Viswas (Right Faith): This refers to having firm belief and trust in the teachings of Jainism, particularly in the 24 Thirthankaras (spiritual teachers) who have attained enlightenment. It's about having faith in the path they have shown towards spiritual growth and liberation.

2. Samyak Jnan (Right Knowledge): This entails acquiring the correct understanding of Jain beliefs and principles. It involves learning about the Jain scriptures, doctrines, and philosophy to deepen one's knowledge and insight into the nature of reality and the path to enlightenment.

3. Samyak Karma or Acharana (Right Action/Conduct): This involves practicing the Five Great Vows of Jainism, which are Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy or chastity), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness). By adhering to these ethical principles in daily life, one purifies their actions and contributes to spiritual progress.

Pancha Mahavaratas: The Five Vows of Jainism

Jainism teaches five fundamental vows, known as the Pancha Mahavaratas, which guide followers in leading a spiritually virtuous life:

1. Ahimsa (Non-violence): Ahimsa emphasizes the principle of non-violence towards all living beings, promoting compassion and harmlessness in thoughts, words, and actions.

2. Satya (Truthfulness): Satya encourages truthfulness in speech and communication, urging individuals to always speak the truth and refrain from falsehoods or deceit.

3. Asteya (Non-stealing): Asteya advocates for honesty and non-stealing, emphasizing the importance of respecting others' possessions and refraining from taking what is not rightfully earned or given.

4. Aparigraha (Non-possession): Aparigraha teaches detachment and non-attachment to material possessions, urging individuals to minimize their desires and avoid hoarding wealth or belongings.

5. Brahmacharya (Chastity): Brahmacharya, added by Mahavira, promotes celibacy or chastity, encouraging individuals to exercise control over their physical desires and maintain purity in thoughts and actions.

Types of Knowledge

1. Mati Jnana (Perceptual Knowledge): Mati Jnana refers to knowledge gained through the activity of the sense organs, including the mind. It's the knowledge acquired through direct perception of the external world.

2. Shruta Jnana (Scriptural Knowledge): Shruta Jnana is knowledge revealed by scriptures or sacred texts. It encompasses teachings and insights passed down through religious texts and traditions.

3. Avadhi Jnana (Clairvoyant Knowledge): Avadhi Jnana is the ability to perceive events or objects beyond the range of ordinary perception. It's a form of extrasensory perception or clairvoyance.

4. Manahparyaya Jnana (Telepathic Knowledge): Manahparyaya Jnana is knowledge acquired through telepathy or the direct understanding of another person's thoughts and intentions.

5. Keval Jnana (Omniscience): Keval Jnana is the highest form of knowledge attained by enlightened beings, granting them complete and perfect knowledge of all things, past, present, and future.

Syadvada (Theory of "May Be/Perhaps")

Syadvada, also known as Anekantavada, is the Jain theory that all judgments are relative, conditional, and limited. It acknowledges the complexity and multi-sided nature of reality. According to Syadvada, there are seven modes of prediction (Saptabhangi Nayavad), emphasizing that absolute affirmation or negation is incorrect. Instead, all judgments are considered conditional, recognizing the diverse perspectives and facets of truth.

Principles of Jainism as Preached by Mahavira

1. Rejection of Vedic Authority: Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and Vedic rituals, advocating for a path based on personal spiritual growth rather than external rituals.

2. Non-belief in a Creator God: Mahavira did not believe in the existence of a supreme creator God, focusing instead on the concept of karma and individual responsibility for one's actions.

3. Belief in Karma and Transmigration of the Soul: Mahavira emphasized the doctrine of karma, teaching that actions have consequences that affect the soul's journey through the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara).

4. Emphasis on Equality: Mahavira stressed the importance of equality, teaching that all beings, regardless of caste, gender, or social status, are equal and deserve respect and compassion.

Jain Councils

Council	Year	Venue	Chairman	Patron	Result
1st	300 BC	Patliputra	Sthulabhadra	Chandragupta Maurya	Compilation of 12 Angas.
2nd	512 AD	Vallabhi(Gujrat)	Devardhi Woe	Kshamasramana	Compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas.

Jain Literature

The sacred texts of the Svetambaras are primarily written in a language called Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. They can be categorized into:

1. Angas: These are the main texts, divided into 12 sections.
2. Upangas: Additional texts that complement the Angas, totaling 12.
3. Parikarnas: Supporting texts numbering 10.
4. Chhedasutras: Texts focusing on specific topics, consisting of 6.
5. Sutra-Granthas: Two texts providing concise summaries of Jain teachings.

Note: Among the Angas, there are 14 Purvas or Parvas, which are considered the oldest texts containing the preachings of Mahavira.

Additional Important Jain Texts:

1. Kapasutra: A significant text written in Sanskrit.
2. Bhadrabahu: A text attributed to Bhadrabahu.
3. Bhadrabahu Charita: Biographical text about Bhadrabahu.
4. Parishishta Parvan: An appendix found in Trishashthishalaka Purush, authored by Hemchandra.

Sects of Jainism

In 298 BC, a severe famine struck Magadha (now South Bihar), prompting many Jain monks to migrate to the Deccan and South India, led by Shravanbelagola along with Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya. After 12 years, they returned, but differences emerged regarding clothing among the monks. The group led by Sthulabhadra in Magadha advocated wearing white clothes, while Bhadrabahu and others believed in complete nudity as an essential part of Mahavira's teachings.

This led to the formation of two main sects:

1. Shvetambaras: Followers who wear white robes, led by Sthulabhadra.
2. Digambaras: Followers who traditionally practiced nudity, led by Bhadrabahu.

Examples of Jain Architecture

1. Gumphas (Caves): Notable examples include Hathigumpha, Baghagumpha, Udaigiri, and Khandagiri in Orissa, associated with King Kharvela.
2. Dilwara Temples: Exquisite temples like the Vimalavasahi and Tejapala temples located in Mount Abu, Rajasthan.
3. Temples: Significant temples found in Girnar and Palitana in Gujarat, showcasing intricate Jain architecture.
4. Temples: Pavapuri temple and Rajagriha temple in Bihar, contributing to the rich heritage of Jain temples.
5. Statue of Gometeshwar/Bahubali: The famous statue located in Shravanbelagola, Karnataka, symbolizing Jain spirituality.

Royal Patrons

North India:

• Nandas, Bimbisar, Ajatshatru, and Udayin from Haryanka dynasty.
• Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Samprati from the Mauryan dynasty in Magadha.
• Pradyota from Avanti.
• Udayan from Sindhu-Sauvira.
• Kharavela from Kalinga.

South India:

• Ganga Dynasty.
• Kadamb Dynasty.
• Amoghavarsha from the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.
• Siddharaj Jai Singh and Kemarpala from the Chaulukya/Solanki dynasty, notable patrons of Jainism.